Why is Erik Erikson theory important?

As we grow and face new challenges and circumstances from infancy to adulthood, our personality develops through eight specific stages, suggests Dr. Erickson’s theory. These stages of human development are influenced by biological, psychological and social factors throughout our lifespan. Within each stage there is a crisis we are faced with resolving—which, in turn, impacts our personality, the theory goes.

“Erikson’s writings have been really fundamental in shaping the broader field of developmental psychology,” says Onnie Rogers, Ph.D., an assistant professor in the psychology department at Northwestern University in Chicago. Dr. Erikson, who studied under Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud “drew upon Freud’s overarching idea but believed that rather than an internal biological sexual drive as shaping the stages of development, it was really these tensions and crises with society,” she explains.

Here are Erikson’s eight stages of development, according to the the book Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage in Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development theory begins in infancy. “Infants need adult protection and support or they will not survive,” says Frank Worrell, Ph.D., the president of the American Psychological Association and director of the psychology program at University of California, Berkeley. “The stage of trust versus mistrust centers around the infant feeling like their needs will be met,” he explains.

For example, if the infant is hungry, will it be fed? If their diaper is soiled, will someone change it? If they’re sad, will they be comforted? This plants a seed in the infant’s mind of whether the world is a trustworthy place, says Worrell.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage, according to the theory, occurs during early childhood when the child starts to gain responsibility. “This is the age when children are seeing if they can do things themselves,” says Worrell.

Learning tasks like potty training and other skills that instill personal responsibility typically start here. Allowing children to make choices and gain control could help them develop a sense of autonomy and confidence, whereas being shamed for their mistakes may lead to self-doubt.

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Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

Children enter stage three as they start preschool. “This is the first time the child is leaving the structure of their home,” says Worrell. “They can socialize and explore,” by interacting with their peers. The belief behind this stage is that successful children can approach and befriend others, while those who fail may develop a lack of initiative and guilt.

The previous stage’s outcomes carry weight here, too. A child who developed a sense of autonomy may feel confident making friends and trying new things at preschool. If they try a task and fail, they’ll try again. But a child who is coming into this stage with shame and doubt might struggle with doing things on their own. They may wander aimlessly in the classroom or avoid playing with others.

Aim to support exploration and encourage kids to try tasks, like tying their shoes, on their own during this stage, says Worrell.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

By this stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, children are elementary-school age. “Industry is the idea of gaining skills and competencies that are valued in your culture,” explains Rogers. For example, if you’re in first grade, the skills may have to do with whether you can count or read. “If you can’t do the things you’re expected to do or you’re feeling like you aren’t meeting these expectations, that leads to a sense of inferiority,” she says.

On the other hand, if a child has a strong sense of initiative and is encouraged by adults and peers, they’ll feel more confident in social situations.This is also the stage in which kids start to compare themselves to others, explains Rogers. “They think about who the fastest is or who’s the smartest. They start to recognize if they are inferior to others.” For this reason, it’s important for kids to feel accomplished and successful. (So yes, there’s a reason behind those participation ribbons.)

During this stage, it’s also common for kids to start to notice the messages that are being fed to them through the media, including books, TV and movies, both experts say. “They notice who gets celebrated and who is valued,” explains Rogers. That’s why it’s important for them to have access to media reflecting successful people who look like them and are valued in the world.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The crisis of identity versus confusion takes place during the teen years. This stage encompasses one’s racial background, sexual preference and what they may want to do in the future, says Worrell. “Especially if someone is a minority living in the U.S., their sense of self is going to be connected to the messages society is giving them,” he says.

The experts say a teen with a strong sense of identity will be able to answer this question more easily. But a teen on the “confusion” side of the crisis will struggle with knowing where they fit in the world, in friend groups and potentially in their career.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Stage six takes place during young adulthood and is centered around the idea that having a better sense of identity makes it easier to figure out what they are looking for in other relationships. “This stage is not just about romantic relationships, but also includes forming strong bonds with others,” according to Worrell.

Success in this stage leads to strong relationship-building skills, while the experts suggest that people without a strong sense of self may feel confusion over their identity, and will struggle forming strong bonds with others and are more likely to be lonely and isolated.

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Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Stage seven takes place during adulthood. This stage is connected to the feeling of competency and making a contribution to the world. For some, a sense of generativity is connected to having kids, says Rogers. For others, it may be mentoring, volunteering or donating. “You’re taking your life experience and now you’re paying it forward,” she explains.

Since adults need to create or nurture something to outlast them, according to Dr. Erikson’s theory, those still consumed with figuring out who they are may not seek out these opportunities to give back, and become stagnant.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development theory of integrity versus despair happens in old age. This is the point where people look back on their life and decide if they’re happy with what they contributed to the world or regret the things they left unsaid or done.

On the integrity side, you feel content, says Rogers. Life may not have always gone to plan, but you’ve seen the pieces fit together and created something special. But on the despair side, “it’s the feeling that life didn’t come together,” adds Rogers, noting that this sentiment often is connected to feeling angry and bitter.

Worrell adds that at this stage, it’s not the accomplishments themselves that matter, per se. “[A professor] may feel a sense of integrity because they taught decades of students or got them interviews for jobs. A cab driver may also feel a sense of integrity. Each person helped get people where they want to go, just in different ways. A sense of integrity doesn’t depend on education or one’s job; it depends on how much they feel connected and if they are making a contribution to the world.”

Learning Outcomes

• Describe Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development

Figure 1. Erik Erikson.

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud’s and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).

Background

As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik Erikson met Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan—a departure from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.

Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson’s theory is based on what he calls the epigenetic principle, encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where “progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.”

Erikson described eight stages, each with a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail when we discuss each of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)—From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)—As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)—Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)—During the elementary school stage (ages 7–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)—In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to find themselves as adults.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)—People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)—When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)—From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They may face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson’s theory

Erikson’s eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.

By and large, Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, like Freud’s theory, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.

Watch this video to learn more about each of Erikson’s stages.

You can view the transcript for “Erikson’s psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy” here (opens in new window).

eight stages of psychosocial development: Erikson’s stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair psychosocial theory: Erikson’s theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development. The lifespan is broken into eight stages, each with a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.

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