What does dog meat look like cooked

In the Aztec Empire, Mexican hairless dogs were bred for, among other purposes,[13] their meat. Hernán Cortés reported when he arrived in Tenochtitlan in 1519, "small gelded dogs which they breed for eating" were among the goods sold in the city markets.[14] These dogs, Xoloitzcuintles, were often depicted in pre-Columbian Mexican pottery. The breed was almost extinct in the 1940s, but the British military attaché in Mexico City, Norman Wright, developed a thriving breed from some of the dogs he found in remote villages.[15] The genetic heritage of the breed has been almost erased through interbreeding with other dog breeds to keep its looks alive.[16]

Native North Americans

The traditional culture surrounding the consumption of dog meat varied from tribe to tribe among the original inhabitants of North America, with some tribes relishing it as a delicacy, and others (such as the Comanche) treating it as a forbidden food.[17] Native peoples of the Great Plains, such as the Sioux and Cheyenne, consumed it, but there was a concurrent religious taboo against the meat of wild canines.[18]

The Kickapoo people include puppy meat in many of their traditional festivals.[19] This practice has been well documented in the Works Progress Administration "Indian Pioneer History Project for Oklahoma".[20][21]

On 20 December 2018, the federal Dog and Cat Meat Trade Prohibition Act was signed into law as part of the 2018 Farm Bill. It bans slaughtering dogs and cats for food in the United States, with exceptions for Native American rituals.[22]

Europe

One of Ireland's mythological heroes, Cuchulainn, had two geasa, or vows, one of which was to avoid the meat of dogs. The breaking of his geasa led to his death in the Irish mythology.

Ovid, Plutarch, Pliny and other Latin authors describe the sacrifice of puppies (catulina) to infernal deities, and for protection against grain-rust, the meat being subsequently prepared and consumed.[23]

Polynesia

Dogs were historically eaten in Tahiti and other islands of Polynesia, including Hawaii[24][25] at the time of first European contact. James Cook, when first visiting Tahiti in 1769, recorded in his journal, "few were there of us but what allow'd that a South Sea Dog was next to an English Lamb, one thing in their favour is that they live entirely upon Vegetables".[26] Calvin Schwabe reported in 1979 that dog was widely eaten in Hawaii and considered to be of higher quality than pork or chicken. When Hawaiians first encountered early British and American explorers, they were at a loss to explain the visitors' attitudes about dog meat. The Hawaiians raised both dogs and pigs as pets and for food. They could not understand why their British and American visitors only found the pig suitable for consumption.[2] This practice seems to have died out, along with the native Hawaiian breed of dog, the unique Hawaiian Poi Dog, which was primarily used for this purpose.[27]

Although Hawaii has outlawed commercial sales of dog meat, until the federal Dog and Cat Meat Trade Prohibition Act it was legal to slaughter an animal classified as a pet if it was "bred for human consumption" and done in a "humane" manner. This allowed dog meat trade to continue, mostly using stray, lost, or stolen dogs.[28][29]

According to kashrut, Jewish dietary law, it is forbidden to consume the flesh of terrestrial mammals that do not chew their cud and have cloven hooves, which includes dogs. In Islamic dietary laws, the consumption of the flesh of a dog, or any carnivorous animal, or any animal bearing fangs, claws, fingers or reptilian scales, is prohibited.[30]

In most European countries, the consumption of dog meat is taboo. Exceptions occurred in times of scarcity, such as sieges or famines.

In Germany, dog meat has been eaten in every major crisis since at least the time of Frederick the Great, and was commonly referred to as "blockade mutton".[10]

During the Siege of Paris (1870–1871), food shortages caused by the German blockade of the city caused the citizens of Paris to turn to alternative sources for food, including dog meat. Dog meat was also reported as being sold by some butchers in Paris in 1910.[31][32]

In the early 20th century, high meat prices led to widespread consumption of horse and dog meat in Germany.[33][34][35]

In the early 20th century in the United States, dog meat was consumed during times of meat shortage.[36]

A few meat shops sold dog meat during the German occupation of Belgium in World War I, when food was scarce.[37]

In the latter part of World War I, dog meat was being eaten in Saxony by the poorer classes because of famine conditions.[38]

In Germany, the consumption of dog meat continued in the 1920s.[39][40] In 1937, a meat inspection law targeted against trichinella was introduced for pigs, dogs, boars, foxes, badgers, and other carnivores.[41]

During severe meat shortages coinciding with the German occupation from 1940 to 1945, sausages found to have been made of dog meat were confiscated by Nazi authorities in the Netherlands.[42]

Expeditions and emergencies

Travelers sometimes have to eat their accompanying dogs to survive when stranded without other food. For example, Benedict Allen ate his dog when lost in the Brazilian rainforest.[43] A case in Canada was reported in 2013.[44]

Lewis and Clark

During Lewis and Clark expedition (1803–1806), Meriwether Lewis and the other members of the Corps of Discovery consumed dog meat, either from their own animals or supplied by Native American tribes, including the Paiutes and Wah-clel-lah Indians, a branch of the Watlatas,[45] the Clatsop,[46] the Teton Sioux (Lakota),[47] the Nez Perce Indians (who did not eat dog themselves[48]),[49] and the Hidatsas.[50] Lewis and the members of the expedition ate dog meat, except William Clark, who reportedly could not bring himself to eat dogs.[51][52][53]

Polar exploration

British explorer Ernest Shackleton and his Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition became trapped, and ultimately killed their sled dogs for food.

Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen's party famously planned to eat their sled dogs, as well as to feed weaker dogs to other dogs, during their expedition to the South Pole. This allowed the party to carry less food, thus lightening the load, and ultimately helped Amundsen to win his race to the South Pole against Robert Scott's expedition, which used ponies.[54] When comparing sled dogs to ponies as draught animals, Amundsen noted:

There is the obvious advantage that dog can be fed on dog. One can reduce one's pack little by little, slaughtering the feebler ones and feeding the chosen with them. In this way they get fresh meat. Our dogs lived on dog's flesh and pemmican the whole way, and this enabled them to do splendid work. And if we ourselves wanted a piece of fresh meat we could cut off a delicate little fillet; it tasted to us as good as the best beef. The dogs do not object at all; as long as they get their share they do not mind what part of their comrade's carcass it comes from. All that was left after one of these canine meals was the teeth of the victim – and if it had been a really hard day, these also disappeared.[55]

Douglas Mawson and Xavier Mertz were part of the Far Eastern Party, a three-man sledging team with Lieutenant B. E. S. Ninnis, to survey King George V Land, Antarctica. On 14 December 1912 Ninnis fell through a snow-covered crevasse along with most of the party's rations, and was never seen again. Mawson and Mertz turned back immediately. They had one and a half weeks' food for themselves and nothing at all for the dogs. Their meagre provisions forced them to eat their remaining sled dogs on their 315-mile (507 km) return journey. Their meat was tough, stringy and without a vestige of fat. Each animal yielded very little, and the major part was fed to the surviving dogs, which ate the meat, skin and bones until nothing remained. The men also ate the dog's brains and livers. Unfortunately eating the liver of sled dogs produces the condition hypervitaminosis A because canines have a much higher tolerance for vitamin A than humans do. Mertz suffered a quick deterioration. He developed stomach pains and became incapacitated and incoherent. On 7 January 1913, Mertz died. Mawson continued alone, eventually making it back to camp alive.[11]

The slaughter, sale, purchase (including import), or consumption of dog meat is banned in some countries and legal in others, as listed in the table below.

Dogs are eaten by Vame people for certain religious rituals.[96]

Democratic Republic of the Congo

In 2011 it was reported that, due to high prices on other types of meat, the consumption of dog meat is common despite a longstanding taboo.[97]

Ghana

The Tallensi, the Akyims, the Kokis, and the Yaakuma, one of many cultures of Ghana, consider dog meat a delicacy. The Mamprusi people generally avoid dog meat, and it is eaten in a "courtship stew" provided by a king to his royal lineage. Two Tribes in Ghana, Frafra and Dagaaba are particularly known to be "tribal playmates" and consumption of dog meat is the common bond between the two tribes. Every year around September, games are organised between these two tribes and the Dog Head is the trophy at stake for the winning tribe.[98]

It was reported in 2017 that increasing demand for dog meat (due to the belief it gives more energy) has led politician Anthony Karbo to propose dog meat factories in three northern regions of Ghana.[99][100]

Nigeria

Dogs are eaten by various groups in some states of Nigeria, including Ondo State, Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Plateau, Kalaba, Taraba and Gombe of Nigeria.[98][101] They are believed to have medicinal powers. The meat is believed to improve one's sex life, provide immunity from diseases and poisoning, and offer protection from juju (charms).[7][102]

In late 2014, the fear of contracting the Ebola virus disease from bushmeat led at least one major Nigerian newspaper to imply that eating dog meat was a healthy alternative.[103] That paper documented a thriving trade in dog meat and slow sales of even well smoked bushmeat.

Asia/Pacific

Cambodia

Animal welfare NGO Four Paws estimates that 2–3 million dogs are slaughtered annually for their meat in Cambodia. Methods of slaughtering the dog can range from strangulation, drowning, stabbing, or clubbing the head.[104] According to a market research study in 2019 on the dog meat trade in Cambodia, overall a total of 53.6% of respondents indicated that they have eaten dog meat at some time in their lives (72.4% of males and 34.8% of females).[105] A new campaign began in 2020 to end dog meat consumption.[106][107][108][109][110][111]

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, the Dogs and Cats Ordinance was introduced by the British Hong Kong Government on 6 January 1950.[112] It prohibits the slaughter of any dog or cat for use as food by fine and imprisonment.[113][114] In February 1998, a Hong Konger was sentenced to one month imprisonment and a fine of two thousand HK dollars for hunting street dogs for food.[115] Four local men were sentenced to 30 days imprisonment in December 2006 for having slaughtered two dogs.[116]

India

Consumption of dog meat is very rare in India, seen in a few tribal communities like among certain Tibeto-Burman communities,[117] and in some states of Northeast India, particularly Mizoram,[118] Nagaland,[119] Manipur,[120] Tripura, and Arunachal Pradesh.[121]

In March 2020, the Government of Mizoram passed the Animal Slaughter Bill 2020 which effectively bans dogs from being slaughtered in the state.[122]

In Nagaland, dog lovers had launched a campaign to end Nagaland's dog meat trade.[123] The Government of Nagaland banned the consumption and trading of dog meat in the state on 3 July 2020.[124][125]

Indonesia

Indonesia is predominantly Muslim, a faith which considers dog meat, along with pork, to be haram (ritually unclean).[126] The New York Times has reported that in spite of this, dog meat consumption has been growing in popularity among Muslims and other ethnic groups in the country due to its cheap price and purported health or medicinal benefits.[127]

Although reliable data on the dog meat trade is scarce, various welfare groups estimate that at least 1 million dogs are killed every year to be eaten.[128] On the resort island of Bali alone, between 60,000 and 70,000 dogs are slaughtered and eaten a year, in spite of lingering concerns about the spread of rabies following an outbreak of the disease there a few years ago, according to the Bali Animal Welfare Association.[129] Marc Ching of the Animal Hope and Wellness Foundation claimed in 2017 that the treatment of dogs in Indonesia was the "most sadistic" out of anywhere they were killed for their meat.[130] According to Rappler and The Independent, the slaughter process for dogs in Tomohon, Sulawesi resulted in some of them being blowtorched alive.[131][132]

The consumption of dog meat is often associated with the Minahasa culture of North Sulawesi,[133] Maluku culture, Toraja culture, various ethnic from East Nusa Tenggara, and the Bataks of northern Sumatra.[134] The code for restaurants or vendors selling dog meat is "RW", an abbreviation for rintek wuuk (Minahasan euphemism means "fine hair") or "B1" abbreviation for biang (Batak language for female dog or "bitch").

Popular Indonesian dog-meat dishes are Minahasan spicy meat dish called rica-rica. Dog meat rica-rica specifically called rica-rica "RW" which stands for Rintek Wuuk in the Minahasan language, which means "fine hair" as a euphemism referring for fine hair found in roasted dog meat.[126] It is cooked as Patong dish by Toraja people, and as Saksang "B1" (stands for Biang which means "dog" or "bitch" in Batak dialect) by Batak people of North Sumatra. On Java, there are several dishes made from dog meat, such as sengsu (tongseng asu), sate jamu (lit. "medicinal satay"), and kambing balap (lit. "racing goat"). Asu is Javanese for "dog".

Dog consumption in Indonesia gained attention during the 2012 U.S. presidential election when incumbent Barack Obama was pointed out by his opponent to have eaten dog meat served by his Indonesian stepfather Lolo Soetoro when Obama was living in the country.[126] Obama wrote about his experience of eating dog in his book Dreams of My Father,[135] and at the 2012 White House Correspondents' Dinner joked about eating dog.[136][137]

According to Lyn White of Animals Australia, the consumption of dog meat in Bali is not a long-held tradition. She said the meat first came from a Christian ethnic group coming to Bali, where a minority of the immigrants working in the hospitality industry have fuelled the trade.[138]

In June 2017, an investigative report discovered that tourists in Bali are unknowingly eating dog meat sold by street vendors.[139]

Japan

Although the vast majority of Japanese do not eat dog meat, it has been reported that more than 100 outlets in the country have been selling it imported, mainly to Zainichi Korean[140] customers.[141][142] There has been a belief in Japan that certain dogs have special powers in their religions of Shintoism and Buddhism.[citation needed] In 675 AD, Emperor Tenmu decreed a prohibition on its consumption during the 4th through 9th months of the year. According to Meisan Shojiki Ōrai (名産諸色往来) published in 1760, the meat of wild dog was sold along with boar, deer, fox, wolf, bear, raccoon dog, otter, weasel and cat in some regions of Edo.[143]

Mainland China

Main article: Lychee and Dog Meat Festival

Estimates for total dog killings in China range from 10 to 20 million dogs annually, for purposes of human consumption.[144] However, estimates such as these are not official and are derived from extrapolating industry reports on meat tonnage to an estimate of dogs killed.[145]

Consuming dog meat is legal in mainland China except for the city of Shenzhen,[62] and the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture has never issued quarantine procedures for slaughtering dogs.[146][147] In 2020, the commercial slaughter and sale of dogs was banned in all of China.[61]

The eating of dog meat in China dates back to around 500 BCE, and possibly even earlier. It has been suggested that wolves in southern China may have been domesticated as a source of meat.[148] Mencius (372–289 BCE) talked about dog meat as being an edible, dietary meat.[149] It was reported in the early 2000s that the meat was thought to have medicinal properties, and had been popular in northern China during the winter, as it was believed to raise body temperature after consumption and promote warmth.[150][151] Historical records have shown how in times of food scarcities (as in wartime situations), dogs could also be eaten as an emergency food source.[152]

In modern times, the extent of dog consumption in China varies by region. It is most prevalent in Guangdong, Yunnan and Guangxi, as well as the northern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning.[153] It was reportedly common in 2010 to find dog meat served in restaurants in Southern China, where dogs are reared on farms for consumption.[154] In 2012, Chinese netizens and the Chinese police intercepted trucks transporting caged dogs to be slaughtered in localities such as Chongqing and Kunming.[155]

Since 2009,[156] Yulin, Guangxi, has held an annual festival of eating dog meat (purportedly a celebration of the summer solstice). In 2014, the municipal government published a statement distancing itself from the festival, saying it was not a cultural tradition, but rather a commercial event held by restaurants and the public.[157] The festival in 2011 spanned 10 days, during which 15,000 dogs were consumed.[158] Estimates of the number of dogs eaten in 2015 for the festival ranged from as high as 10,000[159][160] to lower than 1,000 amid growing pressure at home and abroad to end it.[161][162] Festival organizers state that only dogs bred specifically for consumption are used, while objectors say that some of the dogs purchased for slaughter and consumption are strays or stolen pets.[163][164] Some of the dogs at the festival are alleged to have been burnt or boiled alive[165] or beaten out of the belief that increased adrenaline circulating in the dog's body adds to the flavor of the meat.[159][163] Other reports, however, state that there have been little evidence of those practices since 2015.[162][161]

Prior to the 2014 festival, eight dogs (and their two cages) sold for 1,150 yuan ($185) and six puppies for 1,200 yuan.[166] Prior to the 2015 festival, a protester bought 100 dogs for 7,000 yuan ($1,100; £710).[160] The animal rights NGO Best Volunteer Centre commented that the city had more than 100 slaughterhouses, processing between 30 and 100 dogs a day. The Yulin Centre for Animal Disease Control and Prevention states the city has only eight dog slaughterhouses selling approximately 200 dogs, and this increases to about 2,000 dogs during the Yulin festival.[167] There have been several campaigns to stop the festival, with the first one reportedly having started among locals in China.[162] In 2016, a petition calling for an end to the festival garnered 11 million signatures in the country.[168] More than 3 million people have also signed petitions against it on Weibo (China's equivalent of Twitter).[159] Prior to the 2014 festival, doctors and nurses were ordered not to eat dog meat there, and local restaurants serving dog meat were ordered to cover the word "dog" on their signs and notices.[157] Reports in 2014 and 2016 have also suggested that the majority of Chinese on and offline disapprove of the festival.[169][170][171]

The movement against the consumption of cat and dog meat was given added impetus by the formation of the Chinese Companion Animal Protection Network (CCAPN). Having expanded to more than 40 member societies, CCAPN began organizing protests against eating dog and cat meat in 2006, starting in Guangzhou and continuing in more than ten other cities following a positive response from the public.[172] Before the 2008 Beijing Olympics, officials ordered dog meat to be taken off the menu at its 112 official Olympic restaurants to avoid offending visitors from various nations where the consumption of dog meat is taboo.[173] In 2010, draft legislation was proposed to prohibit the consumption of dog meat.[174] In 2010, the first draft proposal of it was introduced, with the rationale to protect animals from maltreatment. The legislation included a measure to jail people for up to 15 days for eating dog meat,[175] but there were few expectations for it to be enforced.[174]

Decline

As of the early 21st century, dog meat consumption in China is declining.[176] In 2014, dog meat sales decreased by a third compared to 2013.[177] It was reported that in 2015, one of the most popular restaurants in Guangzhou serving dog meat was closed after the local government tightened regulations; the restaurant had served dog meat dishes since 1963. Other restaurants that served dog and cat meat in the Yuancun and Panyu districts also stopped serving these dishes in 2015.[178] Close to 9 million Chinese in 2016 also voted online for proposed legislation to end the consumption of dog and cat meat, but the legislation was not taken forward.[161][179]

In April 2020, Shenzhen became the first Chinese city to ban consumption and production of dog and cat meat.[180] This came as part of a wider clampdown on the wildlife trade which was thought to be linked to COVID-19 outbreak. Citing examples of Hong Kong and Taiwan, the Shenzhen city government said, "Banning the consumption of dogs and cats and other pets is a common practice in developed countries ... This ban also responds to the demand and spirit of human civilization".[181] The city of Zhuhai followed suit in the same month with a similar ban.[182] These decisions were applauded by animal welfare groups such as Humane Society International.[182][183]

In the same month, the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture said it considers dogs as "companion animals", not as livestock.[184][185]

Malaysia

The consumption of dog meat is legal in Malaysia. The issue was brought to light in 2013 after the Malaysian Independent Animal Rescue group received a report alleging that a restaurant in Kampung Melayu, Subang had dogs caged and tortured before slaughtering them for their meat.[186]

North Korea

A wall painting in the Goguryeo tombs complex in South Hwangghae Province, a World Heritage Site which dates from the 4th century AD, depicts a slaughtered dog in a storehouse. The Balhae people also enjoyed dog meat, and the modern-day tradition of canine cuisine seems to have come from that era.[187]

Daily NK reported that in early 2010, the North Korean government included dog meat in its list of one hundred fixed prices, setting a fixed price of 500 won per kilogram.[188]

Philippines

The European Society of Dog and Animal Welfare estimates that half a million dogs are slaughtered for food each year in the Philippines.[189]

In the capital city of Manila, Metro Manila Commission Ordinance 82-05 specifically prohibits the killing and selling of dogs for food.[190] More generally, the Philippine Animal Welfare Act 1998[191] prohibits the killing of any animal other than cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, poultry, rabbits, carabaos, horses, deer, and crocodiles–with exemptions for religious, cultural, research, public safety, and/or animal health reasons. Nevertheless, the consumption of dog meat is not uncommon in the Philippines, reflected in the occasional coverage in Philippine newspapers.[192] Philippine news outlets ABS-CBN and SunStar stated in 2012 and 2017 that Korean nationals in Baguio had been playing a role in the city's dog meat trade.[193][194]

According to the Animal Welfare Institute, stray dogs, with many of them having been people's pets, have been rounded up off the street for the dog meat trade and shipped to the Benguet province without food or water while steel cans are forced onto their noses and their legs are tied behind their backs. Nearly half the dogs reportedly die before reaching their final destination. They are usually then killed via clubbing or having their throats cut, after which their fur is scorched off with a blow-torch and their bodies are dismembered.[195] According to a 2007 book co-authored by Temple Grandin, dogs and other animals in some rural Philippine areas could risk getting beaten before slaughter, out of the belief it would create better meat.[196]

Asocena is a dish primarily consisting of dog meat originating from the Philippines. The province of Benguet specifically allows cultural use of dog meat by indigenous people and acknowledges this might lead to limited commercial use.[197]

In the early 1980s, there was an international outcry about dog meat consumption in the Philippines after newspapers published photos of Margaret Thatcher, then British Prime Minister, with a dog carcass hanging beside her on a market stall. The British Government discussed withdrawing foreign aid and other countries, such as Australia, considered similar action. To avoid such action, the Filipino government banned the sale of dog meat. Dog meat was then the third most consumed meat, behind pork and goat and ahead of beef.[198]

Singapore

The sale of dog meat is banned in Singapore.[199][better source needed]

South Korea

Main article: Dog meat consumption in South Korea

Gaegogi (개고기) literally means "dog meat" in Korean. The term itself is often mistaken as the term for Korean soup made from dog meat, which is actually called bosintang (보신탕; 補身湯, Body nourishing soup) (sometimes spelled "bo-shintang").

Dog meat consumption has traditionally been a minority practice descended from South China and nomadic peoples of Manchuria that entered the Goryeo Dynasty as refugees.[200] The practice has never been widespread in the general population throughout history. While Korea has never been a high consumer of dog meat (in terms of % of the population), the country has drawn the most attention due to the high-profile campaigns of Korean animal rights activists and heated debates within South Korea.

Estimates of the number of animals consumed vary widely. The Humane Society International has estimated that 2 million[201] or possibly more than 2.5 million dogs are reared on "dog meat farms" in South Korea (though, this number includes puppy mills for the pet industry).[202][203] According to the Korea Animal Rights Advocates (KARA), approximately 780,000 to 1 million dogs are consumed per year in South Korea.[204] However, these numbers have been critiqued as not being based on actual data and having no scientific basis.[205]

Estimates of dog meat consumption is much lower when accounting for actual sales. In 2017 the Moran Market, which occupied 30–40% of dog meat market in the nation,[206] reported sales of about 20,000 dogs per year.[207] Numbers have further declined from these 2017 estimates and all the major markets have shutdown, including Moran Market.[208] According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, approximately 200 dog farms have been reported to be operating; though, the supply to the dog meat market is unclear as these farms also supply the pet industry.[209]

Over the past 50 years, dog meat consumption has been declining as more people have been adopting dogs as pets. In a 2020 survey, 84% of the Korean population reported never having consumed dog meat nor having plans to ever do so.[210]

Dog meat is consumed by an estimated 3.9% of the population based on a 2018 survey.[211] The most popular dish is the soup "boshingtang", a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Eating hot soups during the summer is thought to ensure good health by balancing one's "qi", the believed vital energy of the body. Dog meat is believed by some to increase the body temperature, to induce sweating to keep one cool during the summer (the way of dealing with heat is called heal heat with heat (이열치열, 以熱治熱, i-yeol-chi-yeol)). A 19th-century version of gaejang-guk explains the preparation of the dish by boiling dog meat with vegetables such as green onions and chili pepper powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots.[212]

The Ministry of Food and Drug Safety recognizes any edible product other than drugs as food.[213] South Korean Food Sanitary Law (식품위생법) does not include dog meat as a legal food ingredient. In the capital city of Seoul, the sale of dog meat was outlawed by regulation on 21 February 1984, by classifying dog meat as "repugnant food" (혐오식품, 嫌惡食品, hyeom-o sigpum), but the regulation was not rigorously enforced except during the 1988 Seoul Olympics. In 2001, the Mayor of Seoul announced there would be no extra enforcement efforts to control the sale of dog meat during the 2002 FIFA World Cup, which was partially hosted in Seoul. In 2018, a South Korean court ruled that it was illegal to kill dogs for their meat.[214] On 21 November 2018, the South Korean government closed the Taepyeong-dong complex in Seongnam, which served as the country's main dog slaughterhouse.[215][216]

The primary dog breed raised for meat is a non-specific landrace, whose dogs are commonly named as Nureongi (누렁이) or Hwangu (황구).[217][218] Nureongi are not the only type of dog currently slaughtered for their meat in South Korea. In 2015, The Korea Observer reported that many different pet breeds of dog are eaten in South Korea, including labradors, retrievers and cocker spaniels, and that the dogs slaughtered for their meat often include former pets.[219] Some of them have reportedly been stolen from family homes.[220]

There is a large and vocal group of Koreans (consisting of a number of animal welfare groups) who oppose the practice of eating dog meat.[221] Some Koreans do not eat the meat, but feel that it is the right of others to do so.[222] A much smaller group had wanted (in 2002) to popularize the consumption of dog in Korea and the rest of the world.[221] A group of activists attempted to promote and publicize the consumption of dog meat worldwide during the run-up to the 2002 FIFA World Cup, co-hosted by Japan and South Korea, which prompted retaliation from animal rights campaigners and prominent figures such as Brigitte Bardot to denounce the practice.[223] Opponents of dog meat consumption in South Korea are critical of the eating of dog meat, as some dogs are beaten, burnt or hanged to make their meat more tender.[224][225] In more recent decades, such practices are being prosecuted by law.[226][227]

Amidst the decline in dog meat consumption in contemporary Korea, a vocal group in Korea has critiqued the international outcry toward dog meat consumption as being hypocritical.[228] International animal rights activists have noted the hypocrisy, as well, given the horrific conditions under which factory farmed animals are raised in the West.[229] Some Korean citizens, as well as members of the international community, have pointed out that the nations from which most of the outcry has emerged have the highest per capita meat consumption on the planet, several-fold higher than that of South Korea.[230][231][232]

Taiwan

In 2001, the Taiwanese government imposed a ban on the sale of dog meat, due to both pressure from domestic animal welfare groups and a desire to improve international perceptions, and there were some protests.[233] In 2007, another law was passed, significantly increasing the fines to sellers of the meat.[234] According to The Daily Meal in 2014, dog meat remained popular in Taiwan despite the laws, especially at smaller towns and villages.[235] Animal rights activists have accused the Taiwanese government of not prosecuting those who continue to slaughter and serve dog meat at restaurants.

In April 2017, Taiwan became the first country in the East Asia to officially ban the consumption of dog and cat meat as well as jail time for those who torture and kill animals. The Animal Protection Act amendments approved by the Legislative Yuan aims to punish the sale, purchase or consumption of dog or cat meat with fines ranging from NT$50,000 to NT$2 million. The amendments also stiffen punishment for those who intentionally harm animals to a maximum two years' imprisonment and fines of NT$200,000 to NT$2 million.[236]

In October 2017, Taiwan's national legislature, known as Legislative Yuan, passed amendments to the country's Animal Protection Act which "bans the sale and consumption of dog and cat meat and of any food products that contain the meat or other parts of these animals."[237]

Timor-Leste

Dog meat is a delicacy popular in Timor-Leste.[238]

Thailand

There used to be a small regional culture of eating dog meat, as well as a trade of dogs for consumption and transporting them to nearby Vietnam where dog meat consumption was more common.[239] In 2014, Thailand passed the Prevention of Animal Cruelty and Provision of Animal Welfare Act which, among other provisions, made it illegal to trade in or consume dog meat.[240] As of 2016, the trade to Vietnam has continued, with CNN reporting that broken bones and crushed skulls have been a common injury for the smuggled dogs.[241]

Uzbekistan

Dog meat has sometimes been used in Uzbekistan in the belief that it has medicinal properties.[242][243][244][245]

Vietnam

Main article: Dog meat consumption in Vietnam

Around five million dogs are slaughtered in Vietnam every year, making the country the second biggest consumer of dog meat in the world after China.[246] The consumption has been criticized by many in Vietnam and around the world as most of the dogs are pets stolen and killed in brutal ways, usually by being bludgeoned, stabbed, burned alive, or having their throat slit.[247] Vietnam does not have strong regulations to stop the practice. Dog thieves are rarely punished. Dog meat is particularly popular in the urban areas of the north, and can be found in special restaurants which specifically serve dog meat.[144][248]

A 2013 survey on VietNamNet, with a participation of more than 3,000 readers, showed that the majority of people, at 80%, supported eating dog meat. Up to 66 percent of the readers said that dog meat is nutritious and has been a traditional food for a very long time. Some 13% said eating dog meat is okay but dog slaughtering must be strictly controlled in order to avoid embarrassing images.[249]

Dog meat is believed to bring good fortune in Vietnamese culture.[250] It is seen as being comparable in consumption to chicken or pork.[251] In urban areas, there are neighbourhoods that contain many dog meat restaurants. For example, on Nhat Tan Street, Tây Hồ District, Hanoi, many restaurants serve dog meat. Groups of customers, usually male, seated on mats, will spend their evenings sharing plates of dog meat and drinking alcohol. The consumption of dog meat can be part of a ritual usually occurring toward the end of the lunar month for reasons of astrology and luck. Restaurants which mainly exist to serve dog meat may only open for the last half of the lunar month.[251] Dog meat is also believed to raise men's libido.[251][252] There used to be a large smuggling trade from Thailand to export dogs to Vietnam for human consumption.[253] A concerted campaign between 2007 and 2014 by animal activists in Thailand, led by the Soi Dog Foundation, convinced authorities in both Thailand and Vietnam that the dog meat trade was a hindrance to efforts to tackle rabies in Southeast Asia. In 2014, Thailand introduced a new law against animal cruelty, which greatly increased penalties faced by dog smugglers. The trade had significantly diminished.[254]

In 2009, dog meat was found to be a main carrier of the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, which caused the summer epidemic of cholera in northern Vietnam.[255][256]

Prior to 2014, more than 5 million dogs were killed for meat every year in Vietnam according to the Asia Canine Protection Alliance. There are indications that the desire to eat dog meat in Vietnam is waning.[176] Part of the decline is thought to be due to an increased number of Vietnamese people keeping dogs as pets, as their incomes have risen in the past few decades.

[People] used to raise dogs to guard the house, and when they needed the meat, they ate it. Now they keep dog as pets, imported from China, Japan, and other countries. One pet dog might cost hundreds of millions of dong [100 million dong is $4,677].[176]

In 2018, officials in the city of Hanoi urged citizens to stop eating dog and cat meat, citing concerns about the cruel methods with which the animals are slaughtered and the diseases this practice propagates, including rabies and leptospirosis. The primary reason for this exhortation seems to be a fear that the practice of dog and cat consumption, most of which are stolen household pets, could tarnish the city's image as a “civilised and modern capital”.[257]

Europe

Austria

Section 6, Paragraph 2 of the law for the protection of animals prohibits the killing of dogs and cats for purposes of consumption as food or for other products.[258]

Switzerland

In 2012, the Swiss newspaper Tages-Anzeiger reported that dogs, as well as cats, are eaten regularly by a few farmers in rural areas.[259][260][261] Commercial slaughter and sale of dog meat is banned, but farmers are allowed to slaughter dogs for personal consumption.

In his 1979 book Unmentionable Cuisine, Calvin Schwabe described a Swiss dog meat recipe, gedörrtes Hundefleisch, served as paper-thin slices, as well as smoked dog ham, Hundeschinken, which is prepared by salting and drying raw dog meat.[262]

It is illegal in Switzerland to commercially produce food made from dog meat.[263]

United Kingdom

Although the commercial trade of dog meat is illegal, it is still currently legal in the United Kingdom to consume dog meat.[264]

France

In France, butcher shops selling dog meat were open all over town until around 1910.[citation needed]

In his poem "Alcools," Guillaume Apollinaire mentions a butcher who sells dog meat.[265]

Oceania

Australia

Each Australian state or territory has its own regulation, but all have laws either making it illegal to eat dog meat or to kill a dog for consumption. It is also prohibited to sell dog meat based on meat processing standards and codes.[266]

Tonga

The consumption of domestic dog meat is commonplace in Tonga, and has also been noted in expatriate Tongan communities in New Zealand, Australia, and the United States.[267][268]

According to Eurasianet, dog fat is seen as a well-established would-be treatment for tuberculosis in parts of Central Asia.[269] The fat has reportedly been used as a folk remedy for COVID-19 in Uzbekistan[270] and Kyrgyzstan.[269]

Poland

Eating dog meat is taboo in Polish culture. However, since the 16th century, fat from various animals, including dogs, was used as part of folk medicine, and since the 18th century dog fat has had a reputation as being beneficial for the lungs. According to Polityka magazine, the main producers of dog fat in 19th- and early 20th-century Poland were Gypsies.[271] While making lard, or smalec, out of dogs' fat is currently discouraged in the country,[272] this practice continues in some rural areas, especially Lesser Poland.[273][274]

In 2009, Polish prosecutors reportedly found that a farm near Częstochowa was overfeeding dogs to be rendered down into lard.[275][272] According to Grażyna Zawada, from Gazeta Wyborcza, there were farms in Częstochowa, Kłobuck, and in the Radom area, and in the decade from 2000 to 2010 six people producing dog lard were found guilty of breaching animal welfare laws and sentenced to jail.[271][failed verification] However, the Krakow Post reported that a man who had admitted to stealing and killing dogs for lard in 2009 at Wieliczka was found not guilty of any crimes by the court, who ruled that the dogs had been slaughtered humanely for culinary purposes.[276] As of 2014, there have been new cases prosecuted.[277][failed verification]

South Korea

See also: Dog meat consumption in South Korea

Gaesoju (개소주; 개燒酒) also known as dog wine, is a mixed drink containing dog meat and other Chinese medicine ingredients such as ginger, chestnut, and jujube to act primarily as a powerful sex drive booster for men, though it is also used to get rid of colds.

It is produced by putting a slaughtered dog into a chicken plucker to remove the fur before being placed into a pressure cooker between 6–19 hours with herbs until it is a dark liquid and bottled as a drink. Women in South Korea produce homemade gaesoju for their husbands as a bedroom gift, or they purchase commercial gaesoju from special markets.

In terms of popularity, there is a South Korean song which mentions a wife turning a dog into gaesoju for her husband[278] and popularity of Gaesoju as a sex tonic is rising compared to dog meat sales.[279]

The Nureongi in Korea is most often used as a livestock dog, raised for its meat, and not commonly kept as pets.[280][281] In 2015, The Korea Observer reported that many different pet breeds of dog are eaten in South Korea, including Labrador retrievers and Cocker Spaniels, and that the dogs slaughtered for their meat may include former pets.[219]

The Tosa, or Japanese Fighting Dog is replacing older breeds or mutts in South Korea. The Tosa is not commonly a pet and is banned in multiple countries, it is also very lean with a little bit of fat, making it perfect for meat production. Currently only Government-Approved dog farms in Korea raise Tosa for meat.[282]

The Dabengou translated as “Big Dumb Dog” is the most used dog in dog meat farms in China. They are mutts produced by breeding St. Bernard dogs from Russia or Kazakhstan with local Chinese dogs. This produces a “beef” like texture of fat and lean, allowing the dog meat to be made into more tender dishes like burgers, sausages or steaks. They also produce larger amounts of pups, weigh over 200 pounds, grow up faster and are immune to most dog diseases. A single St. Bernard from a premium Chinese breeding farm can range from $3000–4000 since it is desired so much to produce larger mutts.[283]

The Chow Chow was also known as “Chinese Edible-Dog” because after the Han Dynasty collapsed, they were fattened and bred with Chinese breeds for meat. Today Chinese dog farms still raise Chow Chow for the purpose of eating, black skinned ones are valued due to their taste when fried while yellow are typically turned into stews.[284]

The Xoloitzcuintli, or Mexican hairless dog, is one of several breeds of hairless dog and has been used as a historical source of food for the Aztec Empire.[13]

The extinct Hawaiian Poi Dog and Polynesian Dog were breeds of pariah dog used by Native Hawaiians as a spiritual protector of children and as a source of food.[24][25]

The extinct Tahitian Dog was a food source, and served by high ranking chiefs to the early European explorers who visited the islands. Captain James Cook and his crew developed a taste for the dog, with Cook noting, "For tame Animals they have Hogs, Fowls, and Dogs, the latter of which we learned to Eat from them, and few were there of us but what allow'd that a South Sea dog was next to an English Lamb."[285][286][287]

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The first electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,[1] and the first functional light bulb in 1878.[2]

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.[3] The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan.[4] The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles.[5] Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, in the First Sino-Japanese War. Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.[6] The introduction of railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe.[7]

Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade.[8] The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see Abolitionism). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.[9]

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Romania as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great Crimean War.

Eras

• Industrial revolution
• European imperialism
• British Regency, Victorian era (UK, British Empire)
• Bourbon Restoration, July Monarchy, French Second Republic, Second French Empire, French Third Republic (France)
• Belle Époque (Europe)
• Edo period, Meiji period (Japan)
• Qing dynasty (China)
• Joseon dynasty (Korea)
• Zulu Kingdom (South Africa)
• Tanzimat, First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
• Russian Empire
• American Manifest Destiny, The Gilded Age, Wild West

Main article: Napoleonic Wars

See also: Timeline of the Napoleonic era

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict.

In the aftermath of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French.

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars.

In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean.

After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

Latin American independence

Main articles: Latin American wars of independence and Spanish American wars of independence

Mexico and the majority of the countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.[10]

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place.

Revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in January in Sicily.[clarification needed] Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.[11]

Abolition and the American Civil War

Main articles: Abolitionism and American Civil War

The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad.

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary[12] on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."[13] He did so.[14] The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,[15] ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Great Bosnian uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a Constitution which defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigate the April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. Bulgaria becomes autonomous.

China: Taiping Rebellion

The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.[16]

Japan: Meiji Restoration

Main article: Meiji Restoration

During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.[17]

Colonialism

Main articles: Western imperialism in Asia and Scramble for Africa

• 1803: The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its Manifest Destiny, which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
• 1817 – 1819: British Empire annexed the Maratha Confederacy after the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
• 1823 – 1887: The British Empire annexed Burma (now also called Myanmar) after three Anglo-Burmese Wars.
• 1848 – 1849: The British empire defeats the Sikh Empire in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Therefore, the entire Indian Subcontinent is Under British Control.
• 1862: France gained its first foothold in Southeast Asia and in 1863 annexed Cambodia.
• 1867: The United States purchased Alaska from Russia.

Africa

In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations.[18]

Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal, but Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.[18]

In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes.[18]

Other wars

• 1801–1815: the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa.
• 1804–1810: Fulani Jihad in Nigeria.
• 1804–1813: Russo-Persian War.
• 1806–1812: Russo-Turkish War, Treaty of Bucharest.
• 1807–1837: the Musket Wars among Māori in many parts of New Zealand.
• 1808–1809: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the Finnish War.

   

  1816: Shaka rises to power over the Zulu Kingdom. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the Mfecane ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa

• 1810: The Grito de Dolores begins the Mexican War of Independence.
• 1811: Battle of Tippecanoe: U.S outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
• 1810s–1820s: Punjab War between the Sikh Empire and British Empire.
• 1812–1815: War of 1812 between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
• 1813–1837: Afghan–Sikh Wars.
• 1814–16: Anglo-Nepalese War between Nepal (Gurkha Empire) and British Empire.
• 1817: First Seminole War begins in Florida.
• 1817: Russia commences its conquest of the Caucasus.
• 1820: Revolutions of 1820 in Southern Europe
• 1821–1830: Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire.
• 1825–1830: Java War.
• 1826–1828: After the final Russo-Persian War, the Persian Empire took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
• 1828–1832: Black War in Tasmania leads to the near extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines
• 1830: July Revolution overthrew old line of Bourbons.
• 1830: November Uprising in Poland against Russia.
• 1830: Belgian Revolution results in Belgium's independence from Netherlands.
• 1830: End of the Diponegoro war. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
• 1831: France invades and occupies Algeria.
• 1831–1833: Egyptian–Ottoman War.
• 1832–1875: Regimental Rebellions of Brazil
• 1835–1836: Texas Revolution results in Texas's independence from Mexico.
• 1839–1842: Anglo-Chinese War
• 1846–1848: The Mexican–American War leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day Southwestern United States.
• 1848: February Revolution overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
• 1853–1856: Crimean War between France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
• 1857: Indian Mutiny against the Company Raj. After this the power of the East India Company is transferred to the British Crown.
• 1859: Franco-Austrian War is part of the wars of Italian unification.
• 1861–1865: American Civil War between the Union and seceding Confederacy.

   

  Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the American Civil War.[19]

• 1861–1867: French intervention in Mexico and the creation of the Second Mexican Empire, ruled by Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Carlota of Mexico.
• 1863–1865: Polish uprising against the Russian Empire.
• 1864–1870: The Paraguayan War ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
• 1866: Austro-Prussian War results in the dissolution of the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation and the Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.
• 1868-1869: Boshin War results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
• 1868–1878: Ten Years' War between Cuba and Spain.
• 1870–1871: The Franco-Prussian War results in the unifications of Germany and Italy, the collapse of the Second French Empire and the emergence of a New Imperialism.
• 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
• 1876: the April Uprising in Bulgaria against the Ottoman Empire.
• 1879: Anglo-Zulu War results in British victory and the annexation of the Zulu Kingdom.
• 1879–1880: Little War against Spanish rule in Cuba leads to rebel defeat.
• 1879–1883: Chile battles with Peru and Bolivia over Andean territory in the War of the Pacific.
• 1880–1881: the First Boer War.
• 1881–1899: The Mahdist War in Sudan.

   

  A depiction of the Battle of Omdurman in 1898; in the battle, Winston Churchill took part in a cavalry charge.

• 1882: The Anglo-Egyptian War British invasion and subsequent occupation of Egypt
• 1883–1898: The Mandingo Wars between the French colonial empire and the Wassoulou Empire of the Mandingo people led by Samory Touré.
• 1894–1895: After the First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
• 1895: Taiwan is ceded to the Empire of Japan as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War.
• 1895–1896: Ethiopia defeats Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa.
• 1895–1898: Cuban War for Independence results in Cuban independence from Spain.
• 1896-1898: Philippine Revolution results Filipino victory.
• 1898: The Spanish–American War results in independence of Cuba.
• 1899–1901: The Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by an Eight-Nation Alliance.
• 1899–1902: The Thousand Days' War in Colombia breaks out between the "Liberales" and "Conservadores", culminating with the loss of Panama in 1903.
• 1899–1902: Second Boer War begins.
• 1899–1902: Philippine–American War begins.

The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell,[22] which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.

• 1807: Potassium and Sodium are individually isolated by Sir Humphry Davy.
• 1831–1836: Charles Darwin's journey on HMS Beagle.
• 1859: Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.
• 1861: James Clerk Maxwell publishes On Physical Lines of Force, formulating the four Maxwell's equations.
• 1865: Gregor Mendel formulates his laws of inheritance.
• 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev created the Periodic table.
• 1873: Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism published.
• 1877: Asaph Hall discovers the moons of Mars
• 1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity; J. J. Thomson identifies the electron, though not by name.

Medicine

• 1804: Morphine first isolated.
• 1842: Anesthesia used for the first time.
• 1847: Chloroform invented for the first time, given to Queen Victoria at the birth of her eighth child, Prince Leopold in 1853
• 1855: Cocaine is isolated by Friedrich Gaedcke.
• 1885: Louis Pasteur creates the first successful vaccine against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
• 1889: Aspirin patented.

Inventions

• 1804: First steam locomotive begins operation.
• 1816: Laufmaschine invented by Karl von Drais.
• 1825: Erie Canal opened connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.
• 1825: First isolation of aluminium.
• 1825: The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first public railway in the world, is opened.
• 1826: Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine.
• 1829: First electric motor built.
• 1837: Telegraphy patented.
• 1841: The word "dinosaur" is coined by Richard Owen.
• 1844: First publicly funded telegraph line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
• 1849: The safety pin and the gas mask are invented.
• 1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass-produced.
• 1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania
• 1858: Invention of the phonautograph, the first true device for recording sound.
• 1860: Benjamin Tyler Henry invents the 16 - shot Henry Rifle
• 1861: Richard Gatling invents the Gatling Gun, first modern machine gun used notably in the battles of Cold Harbor and Petersburg
• 1862: First meeting in combat of ironclad warships, USS Monitor and CSS Virginia, during the American Civil War.
• 1863: First section of the London Underground opens.
• 1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
• 1867: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite.
• 1868: Safety bicycle invented.
• 1869: First Transcontinental Railroad completed in United States on 10 May.
• 1870: Rasmus Malling-Hansen's invention the Hansen Writing Ball becomes the first commercially sold typewriter.
• 1873: Blue jeans and barbed wire are invented.
• 1877: Thomas Edison invents the phonograph
• 1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut.
• c. 1875/1880: Introduction of the widespread use of electric lighting. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor arc lighting systems by 1880.[24]
• 1879: Thomas Edison patents a practical incandescent light bulb.
• 1882: Introduction of large scale electric power utilities with the Edison Holborn Viaduct (London) and Pearl Street (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.[25][26]
• 1884: Sir Hiram Maxim invents the first self-powered Machine gun.
• 1885: Singer begins production of the 'Vibrating Shuttle'. which would become the most popular model of sewing machine.
• 1886: Karl Benz sells the first commercial automobile.
• 1890: The cardboard box is invented.
• 1892: John Froelich develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor.
• 1894: Karl Elsener invents the Swiss Army knife.
• 1894: First gramophone record.
• 1895: Wilhelm Röntgen identifies x-rays.

• 1818: The first permanent Reform Judaism congregation, the Neuer Israelitischer Tempel, is founded in Hamburg on October 18.
• 1830: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is established.
• 1844: Persian Prophet the Báb announces his revelation on 23 May, founding Bábism. He announced to the world of the coming of "He whom God shall make manifest". He is considered the forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith.
• 1848: The Christadelphians founded by John Thomas (Christadelphian).
• 1871–1878: In Germany, Otto von Bismarck challenged the Catholic Church in the Kulturkampf ("Culture War")
• 1879: Mary Baker Eddy founds the Church of Christ, Scientist.
• 1879: first issue of "The Watchtower", a religious magazine currently published and distributed by the Jehovah's Witnesses
• 1889: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, a reform sect of Islam.
• 1891: Pope Leo XIII launches the encyclical Rerum novarum, the first major Catholic document on social justice

• 1808: Beethoven composes Fifth Symphony
• 1813: Jane Austen publishes Pride and Prejudice
• 1818: Mary Shelley publishes Frankenstein.
• 1819: John Keats writes his six of his best-known odes.
• 1819: Théodore Géricault paints his masterpiece The Raft of the Medusa, and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the Louvre.
• 1824: Premiere of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
• 1829: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust premieres.
• 1837: Charles Dickens publishes Oliver Twist.
• 1841: Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes Self-Reliance.
• 1845: Frederick Douglass publishes Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.
• 1847: The Brontë sisters publish Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey.
• 1849: Josiah Henson publishes The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself.
• 1851: Herman Melville publishes Moby-Dick.
• 1851: Sojourner Truth delivers the speech Ain't I a Woman?.
• 1852: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin.
• 1855: Walt Whitman publishes the first edition of Leaves of Grass.
• 1855: Frederick Douglass publishes the first edition of My Bondage and My Freedom.
• 1862: Victor Hugo publishes Les Misérables.
• 1865: Lewis Carroll publishes Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
• 1869: Leo Tolstoy publishes War and Peace.
• 1875: Georges Bizet's opera Carmen premiers in Paris.
• 1876: Richard Wagner's Ring Cycle is first performed in its entirety.
• 1883: Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island is published.
• 1884: Mark Twain publishes the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
• 1886: "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
• 1887: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes his first Sherlock Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet.
• 1889: Vincent van Gogh paints The Starry Night.
• 1889: Moulin Rouge opens in Paris.
• 1892: Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite premières in St Petersberg.
• 1894: Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book is published
• 1895: Trial of Oscar Wilde and premiere of his play The Importance of Being Earnest.
• 1897: Bram Stoker writes Dracula.
• 1900: L. Frank Baum publishes The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.

Main articles: Romantic poetry and 19th century in literature

On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began.[27]

The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott, Thomas Carlyle and Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of the character Sherlock Holmes); the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire.[28]

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few.

Photography

See also: History of photography, List of photojournalists, Photojournalism, and Daguerreotype

• Ottomar Anschütz, chronophotographer
• Mathew Brady, documented the American Civil War
• Edward S. Curtis, documented the American West notably Native Americans
• Louis Daguerre, inventor of daguerreotype process of photography, chemist
• Thomas Eakins, pioneer motion photographer
• George Eastman, inventor of roll film
• Hércules Florence, pioneer inventor of photography
• Auguste and Louis Lumière, pioneer film-makers, inventors
• Étienne-Jules Marey, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer
• Eadweard Muybridge, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer
• Nadar a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
• Nicéphore Niépce, pioneer inventor of photography
• Louis Le Prince, motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
• Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, chemist and photographer
• William Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

Visual artists, painters, sculptors

Main articles: History of art § Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970), Western painting, and Ukiyo-e

The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included:

• Ivan Aivazovsky
• Léon Bakst
• Albert Bierstadt
• William Blake
• Arnold Böcklin
• Rosa Bonheur
• William Burges
• Mary Cassatt
• Camille Claudel
• Paul Cézanne
• Frederic Edwin Church
• Thomas Cole
• Jan Matejko
• John Constable
• Camille Corot
• Gustave Courbet
• Honoré Daumier
• Edgar Degas
• Eugène Delacroix
• Thomas Eakins
• Caspar David Friedrich
• Paul Gauguin
• Théodore Géricault
• Vincent van Gogh
• William Morris
• Francisco Goya
• Andō Hiroshige
• Hokusai
• Winslow Homer
• Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
• Isaac Levitan
• Édouard Manet
• Claude Monet
• Gustave Moreau
• Berthe Morisot
• Edvard Munch
• Mikhail Nesterov
• Camille Pissarro
• Augustus Pugin
• Pierre-Auguste Renoir
• Ilya Repin
• Auguste Rodin
• Albert Pinkham Ryder
• John Singer Sargent
• Valentin Serov
• Georges Seurat
• Ivan Shishkin
• Vasily Surikov
• James Tissot
• Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
• Joseph Mallord William Turner
• Viktor Vasnetsov
• Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
• Mikhail Vrubel
• James Abbott McNeill Whistler
• Tsukioka Yoshitoshi

Music

Main articles: List of Romantic-era composers, Romantic music, and Romanticism

Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes:

• Mily Balakirev
• Ludwig van Beethoven
• Hector Berlioz
• Georges Bizet
• Alexander Borodin
• Johannes Brahms
• Anton Bruckner
• Frédéric Chopin
• Claude Debussy
• Antonín Dvořák
• Mikhail Glinka
• Edvard Grieg
• Scott Joplin
• Alexandre Levy
• Franz Liszt
• Gustav Mahler
• Felix Mendelssohn
• Modest Mussorgsky
• Jacques Offenbach
• Niccolò Paganini
• Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
• Gioachino Rossini
• Anton Rubinstein
• Camille Saint-Saëns
• Antonio Salieri
• Franz Schubert
• Robert Schumann
• Alexander Scriabin
• Arthur Sullivan
• Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
• Giuseppe Verdi
• Richard Wagner

Sports

• 1867: The Marquess of Queensberry Rules for boxing are published.
• 1872: The first recognised international soccer match, between England and Scotland, is played.
• 1877: The first test cricket match, between England and Australia, is played.
• 1891: Basketball is invented by James Naismith.
• 1895: Volleyball is invented.
• 1896: Olympic Games revived in Athens.

Main article: Timeline of the 19th century

• 1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the United Kingdom.
• 1802: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State sack Karbala.
• 1803: William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the "first practical steamboat".
• 1803: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina.
• 1804: Austrian Empire founded by Francis I.
• 1804: World population reaches 1 billion.
• 1805: The Battle of Trafalgar eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the British Empire later in the century.
• 1805–1848: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.

• 1810: The University of Berlin was founded. Among its students and faculty are Hegel, Marx, and Bismarck. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see History of European research universities).
• 1814: Elisha Collier invents the Flintlock Revolver.
• 1814 : February 1 Eruption of Mayon Volcano
• 1815: April, Mount Tambora in Sumbawa island erupts, becoming the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history, destroying Tambora culture, and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created global climate anomalies known as "volcanic winter".[29]
• 1816: Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of Mount Tambora.
• 1816–1828: Shaka's Zulu Kingdom becomes the largest in Southern Africa.
• 1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company.
• 1820: Discovery of Antarctica.
• 1820: Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.
• 1820: Dissolution of the Maratha Empire.
• 1821–1823: First Mexican Empire, as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor Agustín I of Mexico.
• 1822: Pedro I of Brazil declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
• 1823: Monroe Doctrine declared by US President James Monroe.
• 1825: The Decembrist revolt.

• 1829: Sir Robert Peel founds the Metropolitan Police Service, the first modern police force.

• 1830: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, the Great Game, commences and concludes in 1895.
• 1831: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the Battle of Warsaw.
• 1832: The British Parliament passes the Great Reform Act.
• 1834–1859: Imam Shamil's rebellion in Russian-occupied Caucasus.
• 1835–1836: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas.
• 1836: Samuel Colt popularizes the revolver and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the Colt Paterson revolver a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
• 1837–1838: Rebellions of 1837 in Canada.
• 1838: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the Trail of Tears.
• 1839–1860: After the First and Second Opium Wars, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many trade and associated concessions from China resulting in the start of the decline of the Qing dynasty.
• 1839–1919: Anglo-Afghan Wars lead to stalemate and the establishment of the Durand line
• 1842: Treaty of Nanking cedes Hong Kong to the British.
• 1843: The first wagon train sets out from Missouri.
• 1844: Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers establish what is considered the first cooperative in the world.
• 1845–1849: The Great Famine of Ireland leads to the Irish diaspora.
• 1848: The Communist Manifesto published.
• 1848: Seneca Falls Convention is the first women's rights convention in the United States and leads to the battle for women's suffrage.
• 1848–1855: California Gold Rush.
• 1849: Earliest recorded air raid, as Austria employs 200 balloons to deliver ordnance against Venice.
• 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time.
• 1850: Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch establishes the first cooperative financial institution.

• 1851: The Great Exhibition in London was the world's first international Expo or World Fair.
• 1852: Frederick Douglass delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in Rochester, New York.
• 1857: Sir Joseph Whitworth designs the first long-range sniper rifle.
• 1857–1858: Indian Rebellion of 1857. The British Empire assumes control of India from the East India Company.
• 1858: Construction of Big Ben is completed.
• 1859–1869: Suez Canal is constructed.

• 1860: Giuseppe Garibaldi launches the Expedition of the Thousand.
• 1861: Russia abolishes serfdom.
• 1862–1877: Muslim Rebellion in north-west China.
• 1863: Formation of the International Red Cross is followed by the adoption of the First Geneva Convention in 1864.
• 1865–1877: Reconstruction in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
• 1868: Michael Barrett is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
• 1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea.

• 1870: Official dismantling of the Cultivation System and beginning of a 'Liberal Policy' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.[30]
• 1870–1890: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America.
• 1871–1872: Famine in Persia is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
• 1871: The Paris Commune briefly rules the French capital.
• 1872: Yellowstone National Park, the first national park, is created.
• 1874: The Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs, better known as the Impressionists, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer Nadar.
• 1874: The Home Rule Movement is established in Ireland.
• 1875: HMS Challenger surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the Challenger Deep
• 1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn leads to the death of General Custer and victory for the alliance of Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho
• 1876–1914: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the Gilded Age.
• 1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide labour strike.
• 1881: Wave of pogroms begins in the Russian Empire.
• 1881–1882: The Jules Ferry laws are passed in France establishing free, secular education.
• 1883: Krakatoa volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
• 1883: The quagga is rendered extinct.
• 1886: Construction of the Statue of Liberty; Coca-Cola is developed.
• 1888: Founding of the shipping line Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.[30]
• 1888: The Golden Law abolishes slavery in Brazil.
• 1889: Eiffel Tower is inaugurated in Paris.

• 1889: A republican military coup establishes the First Brazilian Republic. The parliamentary constitutional monarchy is abolished.
• 1889-1890: 1889–1890 pandemic kills 1 million people.
• 1890: First use of the electric chair as a method of execution.
• 1892: The World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago celebrating the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World.
• 1892: Fingerprinting is officially adopted for the first time.
• 1893: New Zealand becomes the first country to enact women's suffrage.
• 1893: The Coremans-de Vriendt law is passed in Belgium, creating legal equality for French and Dutch languages.
• 1894: Lombok War[30] The Dutch loot and destroy the Cakranegara palace of Mataram.[31] J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures Nagarakretagama manuscript in Lombok royal library.
• 1896: Philippine Revolution ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
• 1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish–American War.
• 1898: Empress Dowager Cixi of China engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the Hundred Days' Reform; the Guangxu Emperor is arrested.
• 1900: Exposition Universelle held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend Art Nouveau.
• 1900–1901: Eight nations invade China at the same time and ransack Forbidden City.

For later events, see Timeline of the 20th century.

•  

  Carl Friedrich Gauss

•  

  Charles Darwin

•  

  Victor Hugo c. 1876

•  

  Dmitri Mendeleev

•  

  Louis Pasteur, 1878

•  

  Marie Curie, c. 1898

•  

  Nikola Tesla

•  

  José Rizal

•  

  Jane Austen

•  

  Leo Tolstoy c. 1897

•  

  Edgar Allan Poe

•  

  Charles Dickens

•  

  Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872

•  

  Mark Twain, 1894

•  

  Ralph Waldo Emerson

•  

  Henry David Thoreau, August 1861.

•  

  Émile Zola, c. 1900

•  

  Anton Chekhov

•  

  Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1876

•  

  John L Sullivan in his prime, c. 1882

•  

  David Livingstone 1864, left Britain for Africa in 1840

•  

  Jesse and Frank James, 1872

•  

  Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885

•  

  Geronimo, 1887, prominent leader of the Chiricahua Apache

•  

  William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s

•  

  Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876

•  

  Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c. 1875

•  

  Alfred, Lord Tennyson

•  

  Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy

•  

  Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

•  

  Mikhail Bakunin

•  

  Søren Kierkegaard

•  

  Solomon Northup

•  

  Dred Scott

•  

  Madam C. J. Walker

•  

  Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872, gave the name to Impressionism

•  

  Paul Cézanne, self-portrait, 1880–1881

•  

  Scott Joplin

•  

  Niccolò Paganini, c.1819

•  

  Frédéric Chopin, 1838

•  

  John D. Rockefeller

• Timeline of modern history
• Long nineteenth century
• 19th century in film
• 19th century in games
• 19th-century philosophy
• Capitalism in the nineteenth century
• France in the nineteenth century
• International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
• List of wars 1800–1899
• Mid-nineteenth-century Spain
• Nineteenth-century theatre
• Russian history, 1855–1892
• Slavery in the United States
• Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history
• Timeline of historic inventions#19th century
• Victorian era

1. ^ "The First Telephone Call". www.americaslibrary.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-10-22. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
2. ^ "Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light". WIRED. 18 December 2009. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
3. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions. Encyclopædia Britannica.
4. ^ "The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century". Americanhistory.about.com. 2012-09-18. Archived from the original on 2012-07-28. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
5. ^ Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England Archived 2008-03-13 at the Wayback Machine
6. ^ "Modernization – Population Change". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009.
7. ^ Liberalism in the 19th century Archived 2009-02-18 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
8. ^ Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore Archived 2009-01-08 at the Wayback Machine. BBC.
9. ^ The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration? Archived 2010-07-04 at the Wayback Machine. Migration News. December 1996.
10. ^ Perez-Brignoli, Hector (1989). A Brief History of Central America. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520909762.
11. ^ R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849 (2000) pp. v, 4
12. ^ "The Emancipation Proclamation". National Archives. October 6, 2015. Archived from the original on February 6, 2017. Retrieved February 15, 2017.
13. ^ McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment," in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), The Reader's Companion to American History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [1] Retrieved from Archived 2018-11-06 at the Wayback Machine
14. ^ Text of Emancipation Proclamation
15. ^ "13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery". National Archives. January 27, 2016. Archived from the original on February 16, 2017. Retrieved February 15, 2017.
16. ^ Reilly, Thomas H. (2004). The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire (1 ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295801926.
17. ^ W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (1972),
18. ^ a b c Kerr, Gordon (2012). A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring. Harpenden, Herts [UK]: Pocket Essentials. pp. 85–101. ISBN 9781842434420.
19. ^ "Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape Archived 2017-02-28 at the Wayback Machine". John Huddleston (2002). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6773-8
20. ^ Engraving after 'Men of Science Living in 1807-8', John Gilbert engraved by George Zobel and William Walker, ref. NPG 1075a, National Portrait Gallery, London, accessed February 2010
21. ^ Smith, HM (May 1941). "Eminent men of science living in 1807-8". J. Chem. Educ. 18 (5): 203. doi:10.1021/ed018p203.
22. ^ Snyder, Laura J. (2000-12-23). "William Whewell". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2010-01-04. Retrieved 2008-03-03. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
23. ^ "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2018-12-31. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009.
24. ^ The First Form of Electric Light History of the Carbon Arc Lamp (1800 - 1980s)'.Edison Tech Center, edisontechcenter.org
25. ^ Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310
26. ^ Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1
27. ^ David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century (2nd ed. 2008)
28. ^ M. H. Abrams et al., eds., The Norton Anthology of English Literature (9th ed. 2012)
29. ^ Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534.
30. ^ a b c Vickers (2005), page xii
31. ^ Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in Colonial collections Revisited: Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. ISBN 978-90-5789-152-6. 296 pages. pp. 186–203

• Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free
• Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online frr

• New Cambridge Modern History (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
  • Bury, J. P. T. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70 (1964) online
  • Crawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830 (1965) online
  • Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas (1972)
  • Hinsley, F.H., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898 (1979) online

Main article: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

• Aldrich, Robert (1996). Greater France. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5. ISBN 978-0-333-56740-1.
• Bartlett, C. J. (1996). Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9. ISBN 978-0-333-62001-4.
• Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914, 2nd Ed. (2005)
• Gooch, G. P. (1923). "History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919". Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs. 2 (6): 266. doi:10.2307/3014586. JSTOR 3014586.
• Herring, George C. Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921 (2017)
• Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000 (1987), stress on economic and military factors
• Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890 (1950); advanced history online
• Langer, William. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (1950); advanced history online
• Mowat, R.B. A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914 (1922) online free
• Osterhammel, Jürgen (2014). The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century (PDF). doi:10.1515/9781400849949. ISBN 9781400849949.
• Porter, Andrew, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century (2001)
• Sontag, Raymond. European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932 (1933), basic summary; 425 pp online
• Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; online free
• Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 542–66. online
• Wesseling, H. L. (2015). The European Colonial Empires. doi:10.4324/9781315844503. ISBN 9781315844503.

• Anderson, M. S. The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914 (3rd ed. 2003)
• Blanning, T. C. W. ed. The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914 (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
• Bruun, Geoffrey. Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 (1938) online.
• Cameron, Rondo. France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
• Evans, Richard J. The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914 (2016), 934 pp
• Gildea, Robert. Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914 (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, online 2nd ed, 1996
• Grab, Alexander (2003). Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. doi:10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5. ISBN 978-0-333-68275-3.
• Mason, David S. A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity (2011), since 1700
• Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire (5 vol. 2006)
• Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life (2011)
• Salmi, Hannu. 19th Century Europe: A Cultural History (2008).

• Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s (1998)
• Akyeampong, Emmanuel; Bates, Robert H; Nunn, Nathan; Robinson, James A, eds. (2014). Africa's Development in Historical Perspective. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139644594. ISBN 9781139644594.
• Chamberlain. M.E. The Scramble for Africa (3rd ed. 2010)
• Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. A History of Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Davidson, Basil Africa In History, Themes and Outlines. (2nd ed. 1991).
• Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia. doi:10.1017/9781316340356. ISBN 9781107118737.
• Ludden, David. India and South Asia: A Short History (2013).
• McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of African History (2nd ed. 1996). excerpt
• Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, A History of the Middle East (4th ed, 2013).
• Murphey, Rhoads (2016). A History of Asia. doi:10.4324/9781315509495. ISBN 9781315509495.
• Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912 (1992)

• Bakewell, Peter, A History of Latin America (Blackwell, 1997)
• Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. The Oxford History of Mexico (2010)
• Bethell, Leslie, ed. (1984). The Cambridge History of Latin America. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521232234. ISBN 9781139055161.
• Black, Conrad. Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present (2014)
• Burns, E. Bradford, Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History, paperback, PrenticeHall 2001, 7th edition
• Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (2009), Pulitzer Prize
• Kirkland, Edward C. A History Of American Economic Life (3rd ed. 1960) online
• Lynch, John, ed. Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
• McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
• Parry, J.H. A Short History of the West Indies (1987)
• Paxson, Frederic Logan. History of the American frontier, 1763–1893 (1924) online, Pulitzer Prize
• White, Richard. The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896 (2017)

• de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period (2008), 1192 pp
• Kertesz, G.A. ed Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939 (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents

•   Media related to 19th century at Wikimedia Commons

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