Educational videos have become an important part of higher education, providing an important content-delivery tool in many flipped, blended, and online classes. Effective use of video as an educational tool is enhanced when instructors consider three elements: how to manage cognitive load of the video; how to maximize student engagement with the video; and how to promote active learning from the video. This essay reviews literature relevant to each of these principles and suggests practical ways instructors can use these principles when using video as an educational tool.
Video has become an important part of higher education. It is integrated as part of traditional courses, serves as a cornerstone of many blended courses, and is often the main information-delivery mechanism in online courses. Several meta-analyses have shown that technology can enhance learning (e.g., Means et al., 2010
Cognitive load
Student engagement
Active learning
Together, these elements provide a solid base for the development and use of video as an effective educational tool.
One of the primary considerations when constructing educational materials, including video, is cognitive load. Cognitive load theory, initially articulated by Sweller (1988
Based on this model of memory, cognitive load theory suggests that any learning experience has three components. The first of these is intrinsic load, which is inherent to the subject under study and is determined in part by the degrees of connectivity within the subject. The common example given to illustrate a subject with low intrinsic load is a word pair (e.g., blue = azul); grammar, on the other hand, is a subject with a high intrinsic load due to its many levels of connectivity and conditional relationships. In an example from biology, learning the names of the stages of mitosis would have lower intrinsic load than understanding the process of cell cycle control. The second component of any learning experience is germane load, which is the level of cognitive activity necessary to reach the desired learning outcome—for example, to make the comparisons, do the analysis, and elucidate the steps necessary to master the lesson. The ultimate goal of these activities is for the learner to incorporate the subject under study into a schema of richly connected ideas. The third component of a learning experience is extraneous load, which is cognitive effort that does not help the learner toward the desired learning outcome. It is often characterized as load that arises from a poorly designed lesson (e.g., confusing instructions, extra information) but may also be load that arises due to stereotype threat or imposter syndrome. These concepts are more fully articulated and to some extent critiqued in an excellent review by deJong (2010)
These definitions have implications for design of educational materials and experiences. Specifically, instructors should seek to minimize extraneous cognitive load and should consider the intrinsic cognitive load of the subject when constructing learning experiences, carefully structuring them when the material has high intrinsic load. Because working memory has a limited capacity, and information must be processed by working memory to be encoded in long-term memory, it is important to prompt working memory to accept, process, and send to long-term memory only the most crucial information (Ibrahim et al., 2012
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning builds on the cognitive load theory, noting that working memory has two channels for information acquisition and processing: a visual/pictorial channel and an auditory/verbal-processing channel (Mayer, 2001
These theories give rise to several recommendations about educational videos (see Table 1). Based on the premise that effective learning experiences minimize extraneous cognitive load, optimize germane cognitive load, and manage intrinsic cognitive lead, four effective practices emerge.
Practices to maximize student learning from educational videos
Cognitive load | Use signaling to highlight important information. | Can reduce extraneous load. | Key words on screen highlighting important elements |
Can enhance germane load. | Changes in color or contrast to emphasize organization of information | ||
Changes in color or contrast to emphasize relationships within information | |||
Brief out-of-video text explaining purpose and context for video (e.g., learning objective for video) | |||
Use segmenting to chunk information. | Manages intrinsic load. | Short videos (6 minutes or less) | |
Can enhance germane load. | Chapters or click-forward questions within videos | ||
Use weeding to eliminate extraneous information. | Reduces extraneous load. | Eliminating music | |
Eliminating complex backgrounds | |||
Match modality by using auditory and visual channels to convey complementary information. | Can enhance germane load. | Khan Academy–style tutorial videos that illustrate and explain phenomena | |
Narrated animations | |||
Student engagement | Keep each video brief. | Increases percentage of each video that students watch; may increase total watch time. | Multiple videos for a lesson, each ≤ 6 minutes |
May decrease mind wandering. | |||
Use conversational language. | Creates a sense of social partnership between student and instructor, prompting the student to try harder to make sense of the lesson. | Placing the student in the lesson by use of “your” rather than “the” during explanations | |
Use of “I” to indicate the narrator’s perspective | |||
Speak relatively quickly and with enthusiasm. | Increases percentage of each video that students watch. | Speaking rates in the 185–254 words per minute range | |
May increase sense of social partnership between student and instructor. | Expressions of instructor excitement, such as “I love the next part; the way the feed-forward mechanism works is so elegant,” or “Consider how the cell solves this tricky problem of needing to regulate three genes in sequence; it’s really cool.” | ||
Create and/or package videos to emphasize relevance to the course in which they are used. | Increases percentage of each video that students watch. | Videos created for the class in which they are going to be used, with instructor narration explaining links to preceding material | |
May increase germane cognitive load by helping students recognize connections. | Explanatory text to situate video in course | ||
Active learning | Consider these strategies for promoting active learning: | ||
Packaging video with interactive questions. | May increase germane cognitive load, improve memory via the testing effect, and improve student self-assessment. | Integrate questions into videos with HapYak or Zaption, as described by Obodo and Baskauf (2015) | |
Follow short videos with interactive questions within an LMS, as done by Keithly and colleagues (2015) | |||
Use interactive features that give students control. | Increases student ownership and may increase germane cognitive load. | Create “chapters” within a video using HapYak or YouTube Annotate | |
Use guiding questions. | May increase germane cognitive load, reduce extraneous cognitive load, and improve student self-assessment. | Senchina (2011) | |
Make video part of a larger homework assignment. | May increase student motivation, germane cognitive load, and student self-assessment. | Package videos with a series of questions or problems that ask students to apply the concepts from the videos. iBiology Education videos (e.g., What Can You Learn with a Light Microscope?) provide one example (iBiology, 2016 |
Signaling, which is also known as cueing (deKoning et al., 2009
The benefits of signaling are complemented by segmenting, or the chunking of information in a video lesson. Segmenting allows learners to engage with small pieces of new information and gives them control over the flow of new information. As such, it manages intrinsic load and can also increase germane load by emphasizing the structure of the information. Segmenting can be accomplished both by making shorter videos and by including “click forward” pauses within a video, such as using YouTube Annotate or HapYak to provide students with a question and prompting them to click forward after completion. Both types of segmenting have been shown to be important for student engagement with videos (Zhang et al., 2006
Weeding, or the elimination of interesting but extraneous information that does not contribute to the learning goal, can provide further benefits. For example, music, complex backgrounds, or extra features within an animation require the learner to judge whether he or she should be paying attention to them, which increases extraneous load and can reduce learning. Importantly, information that increases extraneous load changes as the learner moves from novice toward expert status. That is, information that may be extraneous for a novice learner may actually be helpful for a more expert-like learner, while information that is essential for a novice may serve as an already known distraction for an expert. Thus, it is important that the instructor consider his or her learners when weeding educational videos, including information that is necessary for their processing but eliminating information that they do not need to reach the learning goal and that may overload their working memory. Ibrahim et al. (2012)
Finally, the utility of video lessons can be maximized by matching modality to content. By using both the audio/verbal channel and the visual/pictorial channel to convey new information, and by fitting the particular type of information to the most appropriate channel, instructors can enhance the germane cognitive load of a learning experience. For example, showing an animation of a process on screen while narrating it uses both channels to elucidate the process, thus giving the learner dual and complementary streams of information to highlight features that should be processed in working memory. In contrast, showing the animation while also showing printed text uses only the visual channel and thus overloads this channel and impedes learning (Mayer and Moreno, 2003
Another lens through which to consider educational video is student engagement. The idea is simple: if students do not watch videos, they cannot learn from them. Lessons on promoting student engagement derive from earlier research on multimedia instruction and more recent work on videos used within MOOCs (massive open online courses; see Table 1).
The first and most important guideline for maximizing student attention to educational video is to keep it short. Guo and colleagues examined the length of time students watched streaming videos within four edX MOOCs, analyzing results from 6.9 million video-watching sessions (Guo et al., 2014
Another method to keep students engaged is to use a conversational style. Called the personalization principle by Mayer, the use of conversational rather than formal language during multimedia instruction has been shown to have a large effect on students’ learning, perhaps because a conversational style encourages students to develop a sense of social partnership with the narrator that leads to greater engagement and effort (Mayer, 2008
Instructors can also promote student engagement with educational videos by creating or packaging them in a way that conveys that the material is for these students in this class. One of the benefits for instructors in using educational videos can be the ability to reuse them for other classes and other semesters. When creating or choosing videos, however, it is important to consider whether they were created for the type of environment in which they will be used. For example, a face-to-face classroom session that is videotaped and presented within an online class may feel less engaging than a video that is created with an online environment as the initial target (Guo et al., 2014
As biology educators, we have abundant evidence that active learning in the classroom provides clear advantages over passive encounters with course material through lecture (e.g., Knight and Wood, 2005
Schacter and Szpunar (2015)
Szpunar et al. compared the test performance of students who answered questions interpolated between ∼5 min video lectures and students who did unrelated arithmetic problems between the videos, finding that the students in the interpolated question group performed significantly better on subsequent tests of the material and reported less mind wandering (Szpunar et al., 2013
Zhang and colleagues compared the impact of interactive and noninteractive video on students’ learning in a computer science course (Zhang et al., 2006
Lawson and colleagues examined the impact of guiding questions on students’ learning from a video about social psychology in an introductory psychology class (Lawson et al., 2006
MacHardy and Pardos (2015)
The important thing to keep in mind is that watching a video can be a passive experience, much as reading can be. To make the most of our educational videos, we need to help students do the processing and self-evaluation that will lead to the learning we want to see.
Video may provide a significant means to improve student learning and enhance student engagement in biology courses (Allen and Smith, 2012
Keep videos brief and targeted on learning goals.
Use audio and visual elements to convey appropriate parts of an explanation; consider how to make these elements complementary rather than redundant.
Use signaling to highlight important ideas or concepts.
Use a conversational, enthusiastic style to enhance engagement.
Embed videos in a context of active learning by using guiding questions, interactive elements, or associated homework assignments.
- Allen WA, Smith AR. Effects of video podcasting on psychomotor and cognitive performance, attitudes and study behavior of student physical therapists. Innov Educ Teach Int. 2012;49:401–414. [Google Scholar]
- Bjork RA, Dunlosky J, Kornell N. Self-regulating learning: beliefs, techniques, and illusions. Annu Rev Psychol. 2013;64:417–444. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brame CJ, Biel R. Test-enhanced learning: the potential for testing to promote greater learning in undergraduate science courses. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2015;14:es4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Caudel D, Grundstrom E, Stewart S. AstroNavigation. 2015. my.vanderbilt.edu/astronav/overview/coordinates (accessed 16 May 2016)
- Choi HJ, Johnson SD. The effect of context-based video instruction on learning and motivation in online courses. Am J Dist Educ. 2005;19:215–227. [Google Scholar]
- Dash S, Kamath U, Rao G, Prakash J, Mishra S. Audio-visual aid in teaching “fatty liver.” Biochem Mol Biol Educ. 2016;44:241–245. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- deJong T. Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought. Instr Sci. 2010;38:105–134. [Google Scholar]
- deKoning B, Tabbers H, Rikers R, Paas F. Towards a framework for attention cueing in instructional animations: guidelines for research and design. Educ Psychol Rev. 2009;21:113–140. [Google Scholar]
- Freeman S, Eddy SL, McDonough M, Smith MK, Okoroafor N, Jordt H, Wenderoth MP. Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111:8410–8415. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Guo PJ, Kim J, Robin R. L@S’14 Proceedings of the First ACM Conference on Learning at Scale. New York: ACM; 2014. How video production affects student engagement: an empirical study of MOOC videos; pp. 41–50. [Google Scholar]
- Haak DC, HilleRisLambers J, Pitre E, Freeman S. Increased structure and active learning reduce the achievement gap in introductory biology. Science. 2011;332:1213–1216. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hsin WJ, Cigas J. Short videos improve student learning in online education. J Comput Sci Coll. 2013;28:253–259. [Google Scholar]
- iBiology. iBioEducation: iBiology Courses. 2016. www.ibiology.org/ibioeducation.html (accessed 16 May 2016) [Google Scholar]
- Ibrahim M, Antonenko PD, Greenwood CM, Wheeler D. Effects of segmenting, signaling, and weeding on learning from educational video. Learn Media Technol. 2012;37:220–235. [Google Scholar]
- Kay RH. Exploring the use of video podcasts in education: a comprehensive review of the literature. Comput Human Behav. 2012;28:820–831. [Google Scholar]
- Keithly M, Sebastian T, Woelfle M, Friedman K. Blending it up: active learning in a STEM classroom through the use of online materials, BOLD Fellows Project Gallery. 2015. //vanderbilt.edu/bold/docs/bsci-2210-principles-of-genetics (accessed 15 October 2016)
- Knight JK, Wood WB. Teaching more by lecturing less. Cell Biol Educ. 2005;4:298–310. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kreiner DS. Guided notes and interactive methods for teaching with videotapes. Teach Psychol. 1997;24:183–185. [Google Scholar]
- Lawson TJ, Bodle JH, Houlette MA, Haubner RR. Guiding questions enhance student learning from educational videos. Teach Psychol. 2006;33:31–33. [Google Scholar]
- Lloyd SA, Robertson CL. Screencast tutorials enhance student learning of statistics. Teach Psychol. 2012;39:67–71. [Google Scholar]
- MacHardy Z, Pardos ZA. Evaluating the relevance of educational videos using BKT and big data. In: Santos OC, Boticario JG, Romero C, Pechenizkiy M, Merceron A, Mitros P, Luna JM, Mihaescu C, Moreno P, Hershkovitz A, Ventura S, Desmarais M, editors. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Educational Data Mining, Madrid, Spain. 2015. //educationaldatamining.org/EDM2015/index.php?page=proceedings (accessed 15 October 2016) [Google Scholar]
- Mayer RE. Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Mayer RE. Applying the science of learning: evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction. Cogn Instr. 2008;19:177–213. [Google Scholar]
- Mayer RE, Johnson CI. Revising the redundancy principle in multimedia learning. Br J Educ Psychol. 2008;100:380–386. [Google Scholar]
- Mayer RE, Moreno R. Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educ Psychol. 2003;38:43–52. [Google Scholar]
- Means B, Toyama Y, Murphy R, Bakia M, Jones K. Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies. Washington, DC: US Department of Education; 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Obodo U, Baskauf S. BSCI 111b: Introduction to Biological Sciences Laboratory, BOLD Fellows Project Gallery. 2015. //vanderbilt.edu/bold/docs/bsci-111b-introduction-to-biological-sciences-laboratory (accessed 16 May 2016)
- Rackaway C. Video killed the textbook star? Use of multimedia supplements to enhance student learning. J Pol Sci Educ. 2012;8:189–200. [Google Scholar]
- Risko EF, Anderson N, Sarwal A, Engelhardt M, Kingstone A. Everyday attention: variation in mind wandering and memory in a lecture. Appl Cognitive Psych. 2012;26:234–242. [Google Scholar]
- Roediger HL, Karpicke JD. The power of testing memory: basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2006;1:181–210. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Round JE, Campbell AM. Figure facts: encouraging undergraduates to take a data-centered approach to reading primary literature. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2013;12:39–46. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Salomon G. Hillsdale, NJ: 1994. Interaction of media, cognition, and learning. [Google Scholar]
- Schacter DL, Szpunar KK. Enhancing attention and memory during video-recorded lectures. Sch Teach Learn Psychol. 2015;1:60–71. [Google Scholar]
- Schmid RF, Bernard RM, Borokhovski E, Tamim RM, Abrami PC, Surkes MA, Wade CA, Woods J. The effects of technology use in postsecondary education: a meta-analysis of classroom applications. Comput Educ. 2014;72:271–291. [Google Scholar]
- Senchina DS. Video laboratories for the teaching and learning of professional ethics in exercise physiology curricula. Adv Physiol Educ. 2011;35:264–269. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stockwell BR, Stockwell MS, Cennamo M, Jiang E. Blended learning improves science education. Cell. 2015;162:933–936. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sweller J. Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning. Cogn Sci. 1988;12:257–285. [Google Scholar]
- Sweller J. Cognitive technology: some procedures for facilitating learning and problem-solving in mathematics and science. Br J Educ Psychol. 1989;81:457–466. [Google Scholar]
- Sweller J. Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learn Instr. 1994;4:295–312. [Google Scholar]
- Szpunar KK, Jing HG, Schacter DL. Overcoming overconfidence in learning from video-recorded lectures: implications of interpolated testing for online education. J Appl Res Mem Cogn. 2014;3:161–164. [Google Scholar]
- Szpunar KK, Khan NY, Schacter DL. Interpolated memory tests reduce mind wandering and improve learning of online lectures. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013;110:6313–6317. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tanner KD. Promoting student metacognition. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2012;11:113–120. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Thomson A, Bridgstock R, Willems C. “Teachers flipping out” beyond the online lecture: maximising the educational potential of video. J Learn Des. 2014;7:67–78. [Google Scholar]
- Vural OF. The impact of a question-embedded video-based learning tool on e-learning. Educ Sci Theory Pract. 2013;13:1315–1323. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang D, Zhou L, Briggs RO, Nunamaker JF., Jr Instructional video in e-learning: assessing the impact of interactive video on learning effectiveness. Inf Manage. 2006;43:15–27. [Google Scholar]
- Zubair F, Laibinis P. Interactive videos to enhance student understanding of thermodynamic efficiency. 2015. Presentation at the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, held 11 November 2015 in Salt Lake City, UT.